Anthocyanins are found in high concentrations in fruits like berries, currants and grapes as well as aubergine in the skin , red cabbage and cherries. Here are some other popular anthocyanin-rich foods:.

Studies associate a regular and moderate intake of blueberries and other anthocyanin-rich foods with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and with improved weight maintenance.

More evidence, particularly human evidence, is needed to better understand the potential for blueberries. However, it is widely agreed that including delicious blueberries in your diet is beneficial. Read more about the health benefits of blueberries. The jewel-like colour of pomegranate is a consequence of its anthocyanin content.

Pomegranates are a good source of fibre, and provide vitamins A, C and E as well as other plant compounds with protective properties like tannins.

Studies suggest that including pomegranate in your diet can help prevent various risk factors including high blood pressure , high cholesterol, oxidative stress, hyper-glycemia, and inflammation.

Read more about the health benefits of pomegranate. Purple sweet potatoes have been in the spotlight over recent years.

They are commonly eaten on the Japanese island of Okinawa, which is home to an exceptionally healthy elderly population — a large number of whom are over the age of Some scientists believe such healthy longevity may be down to the large quantities of purple sweet potato in the Okinawan diet.

Like anthocyanins, betalains have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Also found in the stems of chard and rhubarb, betalains are especially rich in the flesh and skin of beetroots. Although anthocyanins have many benefits for maintaining health they are not essential nutrients.

The UK, Europe, US and Canada currently have no recommended daily reference intakes or toxicity levels for anthocyanins, when consumed from food. Anthocyanins are rapidly absorbed so a regular, moderate intake of dark purple, red and blue fruits and vegetables are generally recognised as safe for most people, unless you have an allergy to a specific fruit or vegetable.

For most people, a balanced and varied diet should provide all the nutrition you need. Speak to your GP or healthcare provider if you are concerned about nutritional deficiencies or are considering taking supplements.

What counts as five-a-day? Cheap ways to get your five-a-day More health and nutrition tips. This article was last reviewed on 21 March by Kerry Torrens.

Kerry Torrens BSc. She is a member of the British Association for Nutrition and Lifestyle Medicine BANT and a member of the Guild of Food Writers. Over the last 15 years she has been a contributing author to a number of nutritional and cookery publications including BBC Good Food.

All health content on bbcgoodfood. com is provided for general information only, and should not be treated as a substitute for the medical advice of your own doctor or any other healthcare professional. If you have any concerns about your general health, you should contact your local healthcare provider.

See our website terms and conditions for more information. Have you heard of anthocyanins? Which purple foods do you enjoy the most? Most efforts have been focused on increasing anthocyanins by introducing or inducing the expression of MBW transcription factors to activate the endogenous anthocyanin biosynthetic genes either by conventional breeding or by metabolic engineering.

The introgression of dominant mutations i. Furthermore, the recessive gene atroviolacea atv and the constitutive photoresponsive high-pigment-1 hp-1 allele in combination with Aft or Abg have been shown to stimulate a higher production of anthocyanins in the peel Povero et al.

In order to increase the anthocyanin content in tomato fruits, anthocyanin regulatory genes from different plant species have been expressed in tomato most successfully when the bHLH Delila and MYB Rosea1 genes from snapdragon were overexpressed under the control of a tomato fruit-specific promoter, to give purple tomato fruits containing large amounts of anthocyanins i.

High expression of AtMYB12 , controlling flavonol synthesis in Arabidopsis, together with Delila and Rosea1 further enhanced anthocyanin production in tomato by activating pathways of primary metabolism glycolysis, the TCA cycle, the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway and the shikimate pathway toward the production of substrates, ATP and reducing power for the phenylpropanoid pathway Zhang et al.

A similar strategy was used to obtain tomato fruits with high levels of resveratrol and genistein, reaching levels comparable to those present in soy-based products, like tofu Zhang et al. Based on a similar concept, arogenate dehydratases ADT genes, controlling the level of phenylalanine, have been proposed as new targets for metabolic engineering to modulate anthocyanin content in plants Chen et al.

In general, metabolic engineering that combines multi-level transcriptional regulation and pathway rerouting offers an excellent strategy for biofortification of foods, for the production of plant-derived phytochemicals and ingredients, and for establishing materials for comparative nutrition studies.

Such comparisons should lead to much clearer understanding of the health benefits of foods rich in specific polyphenolic phytonutrients in the diet, and shed light on their mechanisms of action Zhang et al. Novel regulatory targets for enhancing anthocyanin biosynthesis in plant food could include the COP1-mediated degradation of MYB transcription factors involved in anthocyanin production, such as MdMYB1 in apple Li et al.

Beyond this, an understanding of the mechanisms that determine anthocyanin stability, such as anthocyanin decoration i. There are several reviews of epidemiological and preclinical intervention studies reporting the beneficial effects of anthocyanins on health He and Giusti, ; Tsuda, ; Pojer et al.

Despite this, in developed countries, there is an increasing trend in eating energy-dense foods, rich in sugar and saturated fatty acids. Increased consumption of anthocyanin-rich fruits and vegetables could have positive effects on health.

This is even more important considering that purified anthocyanins consumed as dietary supplements do not have the same beneficial effects as anthocyanins in a natural food matrix Prior et al.

In this context, the development of near-isogenic genotypes of common foods, devoid or rich in anthocyanins is of importance for four reasons. First, the production of near-isogenic plant foods allows to reduce some of the complexity of food in the diet—health relationship and provide model foods that can be used for both animal feeding studies and human intervention trials for assessing the role of plant bioactives in the diet.

Specifically, being near-isogenic, the anthocyanin-free genotypes represent a matched control for assessing the health-protective effects of anthocyanins, allowing the identification of their specific mechanisms of action compared to those of other polyphenols and phytonutrients present in the food matrix.

Second, different anthocyanin-rich foods can be used to assess whether the consumption of comparable amounts of anthocyanins in different food matrices gives the same health benefits against different specific diseases. Third, anthocyanin-rich foods can be used in in animal models or directly in human intervention studies, if there are no safety concerns, to validate their health benefits.

Fourth, once assessed, they can add back health-promoting anthocyanins to the diet. Anthocyanin-rich and anthocyanin-free comparator foods have been developed successfully either by conventional breeding i. Below we provide a summary of their beneficial effects also reported in Table 1.

Table 1. Health effects of anthocyanin-containing foods against anthocyanin-free comparators. Anthocyanin-rich maize i. It mainly contains cyanidin 3-glucoside and, to a small extent, pelargonidin 3-glucoside and peonidin 3-glucoside Pedreschi and Cisneros-Zevallos, ; Petroni et al.

The beneficial effects of purple corn have been recognized for a very long time. Aztecs used to prepare a beverage rich in purple corn extract, called Tlaolli , used to treat a number of illnesses. There are indications that a daily intake of anthocyanins in quantities comparable to those consumed in a Mediterranean diet is protective against cardiac injuries and pathologies.

The cardioprotective effects of an anthocyanin-rich diet were tested using an ex vivo model of isolated perfused rat heart Toufektsian et al. The infarct size in rats fed with anthocyanin-rich R1 C1 blue corn diet for 8weeks was reduced compared with those of rats fed with the near-isogenic r1 c1 yellow corn diet, meaning that anthocyanins can induce a state of myocardial resistance.

Moreover, the anthocyanin-rich diet was able to increase the total and reduced glutathione in preischemic heart, suggesting that the protection against ischemia-reperfusion injury might be related, at least in part, to an improvement in endogenous antioxidant defenses.

Most importantly, dietary anthocyanins from blue corn were shown to modulate the metabolism of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids PUFA and increase plasma concentrations of eicosapentaenoic acid EPA and docosahexaenoic acid DHA , two fatty acids known to have a very important role of protection against heart disease complications Toufektsian et al.

Hence, the comparison of these isogenic corn lines showed that anthocyanins might exert their beneficial effects in two ways: directly, e. Dietary anthocyanins from purple corn have been shown to be protective against the cardiotoxic side effects of chemotherapeutic drugs, like Doxorubicin DOXO.

A recent study Petroni et al. Moreover, the mid-term DOXO-induced mortality was significantly attenuated in mice on the RD compared to mice fed with YD. In addition, a purple corn extract did not interfere with the chemotherapeutic activity of DOXO in tumor cell lines.

The mechanisms by which purple corn protects against DOXO side effects are still under investigation. Dietary anthocyanins from blue corn have also been shown to be protective from brain mitochondrial DNA mtDNA damage induced by ethanol.

Oxidative stress due to ethanol metabolism is known to cause damage to mtDNA. Mice consuming the anthocyanin-free diet and ethanol showed increased reactive oxygen species ROS and mtDNA damage in their brains, whereas consumption of ethanol with the anthocyanin-rich diet did not show the accumulation of damaged mtDNA.

Again, this may be due to the induction of antioxidant defense responses promoted by the blue corn diets Demeilliers et al. Other studies have demonstrated that anthocyanins from purple corn have preventive effects on the development of obesity and hyperglycemia induced by the consumption of a high-fat diet HFD.

When fed for 12weeks with a HFD, addition of purple corn extracts to the diet prevented weight gain and hypertrophy of adipocytes, which is an increase in cell size of adipocytes generally associated with increased cellular stress in the adipose tissue and with systemic diabetes Tsuda et al.

Moreover, in cell cultures of human adipocytes, cyanidin 3-glucoside C3G positively regulated obesity and type 2 diabetes markers increasing adiponectin and down-regulating PAI-1 Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor-1 and IL-6 Interleukin-6; Tsuda et al.

Adiponectin is the most important adipocytokine, and its expression is inversely correlated to the amount of fat tissue in the body: In conditions of obesity and type 2 diabetes, it is downregulated, while it is up-regulated during starvation Kadowaki et al.

Elevated levels of PAI-1 and IL-6 are characteristics of obesity and type-2 diabetes Jung and Choi, Another study on the adipose-tissue macrophages ATM confirmed the protective effect of purple corn against obesity-related inflammation. The ability of anthocyanins to exert antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity makes them eligible for the study of different pathologies characterized by both oxidative stress and inflammation.

A study conducted on Sgca null dystrophic mice, with a severe degenerative myopathy similar to Duchenne, has demonstrated that anthocyanins from purple corn counteracted the progression of muscular dystrophy early and late-stage acting on both oxidative and inflammatory status without affecting regeneration.

Purple diet, but not the near-isogenic yellow diet, ameliorated tissue morphology, fibrosis, and muscle performance, promoted a metabolic shift to an oxidative fiber metabolism, and increased the mitochondrial amount counteracting the progression of the disease.

Finally, mice fed with purple corn diet presented less macrophage infiltration compared with the yellow diet counterpart Saclier et al. Anthocyanins from purple corn reduced the orofacial pain induced by the inflammation of the trigeminal nerve, by preventing the macrophage infiltration in the trigeminal ganglion and the activation of microglia i.

In a rat model of trigeminal sensitization drinking near-isogenic yellow or purple corn extract, anthocyanins and acetyl salicylic acid ASA equally reduced allodynia and macrophage infiltration, but only purple corn extract inhibited microglial activation in vivo and reverted LPS-induced inflammation in vitro resulting in lower production of pro-inflammatory mediators IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β; Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1, MCP-1; inducible nitric oxide synthase, iNOS and in an increase in the anti-inflammatory ones Interleukin, IL; Interleukin 13, IL; Arg-1; Fizz1, YM-1; Magni et al.

The nutriepigenetic effect of anthocyanins was also recently investigated. Anthocyanins, as many other phytonutrients, can alter the phenotype through epigenetic modifications.

One of these modification includes histone tail modifications that can alter structure of the chromatin and modify gene expression and function. Many histone modifications have been identified, and the most studied one is the trimethylation of lysine 4 of histone H3 H3K4me3 , which is associated with transcribed genes in mice and humans.

Persico et al. Moreover, purple corn extract reduced the clinical manifestations of diabetic nephropathy, since it lowered diabetes-associated glomerular mesangial expansion i.

There is some evidence that purple corn has anticancer activity as well. The decrease in RAS and phosphorylated Akt correlated with the increase of the cleaved caspase 3 which induced apoptosis Fukamachi et al.

More recently, purple corn extract was reported to retard the progression of the tumor, reducing the percentage of adenocarcinoma in a dose-dependent manner in Transgenic Rats for Adenocarcinoma of Prostate TRAP model rats.

The most effective anthocyanins appeared to be both cyanidin 3-glucoside and pelargonidin 3-glucoside Long et al.

Tarocco, Moro, and Sanguinello are the three major blood varieties that differ from the other varieties of the sweet orange group Valencia Late, Washington navel, and Navelina for the presence of anthocyanins, mainly represented by C3G.

Sweet orange is an interspecific hybrid that has no sexual segregation, so that all varieties of this group can be considered near-isogenic Butelli et al.

Tarocco is from Italy, and it is medium-sized seedless and very flavorful. All three blood varieties of sweet orange have a common ancestor, since they all carry the same Copia -like retrotransposon in the subgroup 6 R2R3-MYB Ruby gene, responsible for the cold-dependent fruit-specific activation of anthocyanin biosynthesis, and arose through selection of bud mutations Butelli et al.

Moro and the common sweet orange Navelina contain comparable concentrations of vitamin C, flavanones, and hydroxycinnamic acids, thus allowing their use in comparative nutritional studies with the aim of testing their obesity-preventing activities Titta et al.

Dietary supplementation of Moro juice significantly reduced body weight gain and fat accumulation in mice. Mice fed for 12weeks with a standard diet SD, 3.

Moro juice was also effective in almost abolishing weight gain induced by a HFD 5. Mice fed a HFD with drinking water or Navelina juice showed no such reduction Titta et al.

In addition, glucose, fatty acid, and triglyceride blood levels were not altered in mice drinking Moro juice on a HFD. Analysis of the transcriptomes of adipocytes of the mice on the different diets revealed that the Moro juice can counteract the effects of the HFD on adipocytes by altering gene expression.

In agreement with this study, mice fed with HFD and Moro juice showed a reduction in body weight gain compared to mice in the same condition but drinking water.

Moreover, Moro juice could counteract liver steatogenesis in HFD fed mice Salamone et al. Analyses performed using Moro anthocyanin-rich extracts confirmed the beneficial effects in reducing fat accumulation in mice, but the Moro extract was less effective than crude Moro juice.

The administration of purified C3G did not show any effect on weight gain Titta et al. This suggested that other components of the Moro juice, in addition to anthocyanins, may contribute to the anti-obesity effects.

For these reasons functional foods are extremely important and the consumption of fresh fruit has to be preferred to fruit extracts or fruit-derived supplementations. A study in healthy human volunteers consuming either blood orange juice or blond juice, showed that consumption of either type of orange juice decreased the pro-coagulant activity of whole blood, an indicator of cardiovascular risk.

This suggested a role of antioxidants independent of the anthocyanin content of blood orange juice Napoleone et al. Another study on healthy humans showed potential protective effects of both blood and blond orange juice on the low-grade pro-inflammatory status induced by the consumption of a standardized fatty meal Cerletti et al.

Consumption of a fatty meal can induce an acute inflammatory status, defined by an increase in platelet and leukocyte counts and in myeloperoxidase MPO degranulation of granulocytes. Granulocytes release MPO, a peroxidase enzyme, into the extracellular space in the inflammatory locus, increasing inflammation.

Frequent fatty meal consumption may lead to chronic low-grade inflammation and to a series of events that may develop into atherothrombosis Cerletti et al. Consumption of both blood and blond orange juice prevented neutrophil MPO degranulation, used as a marker of cell activation induced by the fatty meal, but did not modify other leukocyte cellular markers.

High anthocyanin, blood orange juice was effective in reducing total cholesterol in plasma, unaccompanied by high-density lipoprotein HDL changes. Both juices reduced blood glucose levels Cerletti et al.

Other preclinical studies have confirmed that consumption of blood oranges can have anti-inflammatory effects and limit body weight gain, enhance insulin sensitivity and decrease serum triglycerides and total cholesterol in mice Grosso et al.

Tomato is among the most important vegetables consumed world-wide. It is rich in vitamins, flavonoids, and other health-promoting compounds, but usually it does not contain anthocyanins, except in some tomato wild species, such as S.

chilense Jones et al. The red color, in fact, is due to the presence of carotenoids, including lycopene and the orange-colored β-carotene. Since tomato is the second most consumed among vegetables in the human diet, the importance of this fruit as a vehicle for nutrients and bioactive compounds for improving human health, is clear.

Biotechnological and conventional breeding approaches have been used to engineer anthocyanin production in tomatoes Gonzali et al. Tomatoes genetically engineered to produce high levels of delphinidin and petunidin were produced through the expression of Delila and Rosea1 regulatory genes from A.

majus , specifically in fruit Butelli et al. Mice lacking p53 are prone to develop soft tissue carcinoma at an early age. Mice fed with purple tomato powder supplemented diets showed a significant extension of life span compared to mice fed diets supplemented with red wild-type tomato powder or SD without supplementation.

Interestingly, the combination of different polyphenols was more effective than single flavonoid classes Liso et al. Overall, these studies indicate that tomato extracts enriched in multiple classes of flavonoids, including anthocyanins, display not only a direct anti-inflammatory role, but also a change on the gut microbiota that prevents a chronic inflammation status of the gut.

Apple and apple-related products are some of the most important dietary sources of polyphenols. Moreover, recent discoveries suggest that apple consumption reduces the risk of a number of chronic diseases Boyer and Liu, ; Hyun and Jang, Anthocyanins accumulate preferentially in the peel, where they are responsible for the color of apples.

In addition, some consumers are used to peel apples and other fruits before eating them, thus limiting the consumption of anthocyanins from these dietary sources. There are a number of wild red-fleshed apples, and intense breeding has created red-fleshed apple varieties, because of the increasing interest in developing commercial red-fleshed apple varieties.

Extensive crossbreeding programs involving good flavored, white-fleshed apples, have managed to improve the poor taste of the wild red-fleshed apple, producing a number of good tasting red-fleshed apples Bars-Cortina et al.

Sensory and volatile profile analysis of these apples revealed no differences in flavor and aroma between MdMYB10 -modified apple and the near-isogenic Royal Gala apple Espley et al.

However, consumption of red-fleshed MdMYB10 -modified apple affected inflammatory pathway and gut microbiota in mice. After 7days of diet supplemented with MdMYB10 -modified apple, expression of a group of cytokine genes linked to inflammation Interleukin-2 receptor B , Il2rb ; CC motif chemokine receptor 2 and 10 , Ccr2 and Ccr10 ; C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 , Cxcl10 was decreased by twofold compared to mice fed with a diet supplemented with non-transformed Royal Gala apples.

After 21days, mice fed with MdMYB10 -modified apple showed a tenfold decrease in prostaglandin E2 PGE2 and a non-significant decrease in leukotriene B4 LTB4 plasma levels, compared with mice fed with Royal Gala apple. PGE2 and LTB4 are both inflammatory mediators derived from the arachidonic acid metabolism: the first, synthesized by cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 COX-1, COX-2 , is involved in the cardiovascular event associated with inflammation, while the second, a lipoxygenase product, is involved in the chemotaxis of leukocytes.

Moreover, the gut bacterial flora changed in relation with the diet, and mice fed with MdMYB10 -modified apple showed a significant decrease in Lactobacillus spp. Espley et al. A similar study was conducted on 25 healthy adults in a randomized cross-over controlled trial using naturally bred red-fleshed apples or white-fleshed control apples.

The analyses of fecal microbiota and of gene expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells PBMC, which consist of peripheral blood cells having a round nucleus, like lymphocytes and monocytes have shown minimal differences between the two groups, but genes regulated by red-fleshed apples were immunoglobulin-related, suggesting a potential role in modulating the immune function Barnett et al.

Finally, both red- and white-fleshed apples seemed to have beneficial effects in hypercholesterolemic rats Yuste et al. The benefits of apple and anthocyanin consumption are well established Knekt et al. A considerable body of research has been devoted to identify the MYB-bHLH-WD40 transcription factors involved in the MBW complex activating the anthocyanin biosynthesis in many crop species, with the final aim of improving the anthocyanin content of plant-derived foods by means of conventional breeding or by metabolic engineering.

Additional regulators of the anthocyanin pathway have been identified recently, acting as repressors disrupting the MBW complex or activators stabilizing the MBW complex.

In addition, new levels of regulation have been described, in which the activity of repressors and activators is controlled by post-translational regulation. Anthocyanin production is also under epigenetic and post-transcriptional regulation histone acetylation and miRNAs, respectively.

Despite research on positive and negative regulators has been extensive in the past decade, there are some gaps that could be filled. In some species, MBW complexes activating anthocyanins and related negative regulators still need to be identified.

Are the negative regulatory systems identified in Arabidopsis, apple, and peach e. Is TCP3 and its role as enhancer of MBW function and passive repressor of MYBL2 also conserved?

Can these systems be exploited to enhance anthocyanin content in edible organs? Further studies are required to understand the role of DNA methylation and histone modifications in anthocyanin repression both in model and crop species and eventually verified as a new possible approach to enhance organ-specific anthocyanin biosynthesis.

Can miRNAs e. Are the lncRNAs newly identified in carrot conserved in other species? Can they be employed to enhance anthocyanin accumulation? Advancing our knowledge of anthocyanin biosynthesis will allow the development of new biotechnological tools for the generation of value-added plants with increased anthocyanin content, which help consumers to achieve the desired amount of anthocyanins in their daily diet.

Enrichment of foods in anthocyanins will also be particularly useful for the comparison of the nutritional properties of these bioactives from different food sources.

This may contribute to define which is the bioavailability and contribution to health-promoting properties of the single anthocyanin species present in a plant food, of their combination and eventually of the specific decorating groups in a food context.

All authors contributed equally to the manuscript, and read and approved the final manuscript. KP and CT contributed to conceptualization. FC, AM, MT, KP, and CT contributed to writing, reviewing, and editing.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers.

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Scott Smith, , jsschem k-state. edu Note to editor: This is the third in a series of news releases about the color purple in honor of Kansas State University's founding on Feb. News release prepared by: Jennifer Torline, , jtorline k-state. MANHATTAN -- When it comes to healthy eating, consider adding some powerful purple foods to your diet.

That's because many purple foods contain anthocyanins, which are red, blue and purple natural pigments. Anthocyanins are healthy because they're powerful antioxidants and may help boost the immune system, maintain health and prevent disease, said J. Scott Smith, Kansas State University professor of food chemistry.

Anthocyanins are a group of antioxidants found in red, blue, and purple fruits and veggies. A diet rich in these compounds may prevent inflammation and protect against type 2 diabetes, cancer, and heart disease. Regularly eating anthocyanin-rich foods may also benefit your memory and overall brain health.

For best effects, get these antioxidants from fresh, ripe plant foods rather than sourcing them from supplements. Try this today: Two ways to add a dose of anthocyanins to meals are through a handful of berries at breakfast and some shredded cabbage sprinkled on top of lunches and dinners.

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A Quiz for Teens Are You a Workaholic? How Well Do You Sleep? Health Conditions Discover Plan Connect. Nutrition Evidence Based What Is Anthocyanin? Foods List, Benefits, and More. Medically reviewed by Jared Meacham, Ph. Definition Foods list Benefits Side effects Supplements Bottom line Fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and legumes are not only rich in vitamins and minerals but also contain a range of plant compounds that benefit your health.

What is anthocyanin? Anthocyanin-containing foods. Health benefits of anthocyanins. Potential side effects of anthocyanins. Can you supplement with anthocyanins? The bottom line. Just one thing Try this today: Two ways to add a dose of anthocyanins to meals are through a handful of berries at breakfast and some shredded cabbage sprinkled on top of lunches and dinners.

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